Pathophysiology
Clinical meaning
A head-to-toe assessment is a systematic, cephalocaudal (head-to-foot) physical examination performed at the beginning of each shift, upon patient admission, and whenever clinical status changes. The four techniques used in sequence are: Inspection (visual observation), Palpation (touch), Percussion (tapping to assess density), and Auscultation (listening with stethoscope). For abdominal assessment, the order changes: Inspect → Auscultate → Percuss → Palpate (auscultate BEFORE palpation/percussion to avoid altering bowel sounds). The assessment follows a systematic order: 1. General Survey: Appearance, posture, hygiene, LOC, distress level 2. Head: Skull symmetry, hair distribution, scalp lesions, facial symmetry 3. Eyes: PERRLA (Pupils Equal Round Reactive to Light and Accommodation), visual acuity, conjunctiva color, sclera 4. Ears: External ear inspection, hearing response, tympanic membrane if trained 5. Nose and Sinuses: Patency, discharge, tenderness over sinuses 6. Mouth and Throat: Mucous membranes, dentition, tongue, tonsils, gag reflex 7. Neck: ROM, JVD, thyroid, lymph nodes, tracheal position (midline) 8. Chest/Respiratory: Respiratory rate/pattern/effort, lung sounds all fields bilaterally 9. Cardiovascular: Heart sounds (S1, S2), rate/rhythm, peripheral pulses, capillary refill, edema 10. Abdomen: Inspect → Auscultate → Percuss → Palpate,...